Grammar. Relative pronouns

 We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to Form Relative Clauses 

Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?

That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing  – you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl …

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information  – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is:

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Relative Pronouns 

relative pronoun	use	example
who	subject or object pronoun for people	I told you about the woman who lives next door.
which	subject or object pronoun for animals and things	Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?
which	referring to a whole sentence	He couldn’t read which surprised me.
whose	possession for people animals and things	Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?
whom	object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)	I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.
that	subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)	I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? 

Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:

If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.

the apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.

the apple (which) George lay on the table

Relative Adverbs 

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.

This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb	meaning	use	example
when	in/on which	refers to a time expression	the day when we met him
where	in/at which	refers to a place	the place where we met him
why	for which	refers to a reason	the reason why we met him

Defining Relative Clauses 

Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.

A seaman is someone who works on a ship.

Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)

The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses 

Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.

Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.

Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?

Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.

Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.

How to Shorten Relative Clauses? 

Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.

I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman livingnext door.

Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?

Exercises on Relative Clauses

Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs

• Exercise on Relative Pronouns 
• Subject Pronouns or Object Pronouns? 
• Relative Pronouns – Necessary or not? 
• Relative Pronouns – Necessary or not? 

OTHER LINKS AND EXTRA INFO:

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/es/english-grammar/clause-phrase-and-sentence/verb-patterns/relative-clauses

http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-clauses.html

Relative clauses

Some notes about relative clauses

Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.):

They’re the people who want to buy our house.

Here are some cells which have been affected.

They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.

[talking about an actress]

She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

Spoken English:

In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in informal speaking:

They’re the people that want to buy our house.

Here are some cells that have been affected.

Subject or object

The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:

They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house. The people is the subject.)

They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The peopleis the object.)

Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality. Some cells is the subject.)

Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some cells. Some cells is the object.)

No relative pronoun

We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:

They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.

Here are some cells the researcher has identified.

Punctuation

Warning:

In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:

This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:

She’s the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun she)

Not: She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.

There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun they)

Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.

When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:

We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the object of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun it)

Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.)

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.

Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the autumn.

Warning:

We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:

Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

See also:

• Relative pronouns

Punctuation

In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:

Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.

Spoken English:

In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:

Unlike American firms – which typically supply all three big American car makers – Japanese ones traditionally work exclusively with one maker.(formal)

And this woman – who I’d never met before – came up and spoke to me.(informal)

Defining or non-defining relative clauses?

Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different meanings.

Compare

non-defining	defining
His brother, who works at the supermarket, is a friend of mine. He has only one brother, and that brother works at the supermarket.	His brother who works at the supermarket is a friend of mine. He has more than one brother. The one I’m talking about works at the supermarket.
It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local charities, which help the homeless. The money is intended for local charities. All these local charities help the homeless.	It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local charities which help the homeless. The money is intended for local charities. Some of these local charities help the homeless. There are other local charities as well as these.

Warning:

The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we can’t leave out the relative clause. The information in a non-defining relative clause is extra information which isn’t essential, so we can leave out the relative clause.

Compare

The soldier who had gold stripes on his uniform seemed to be the most important one.	A defining relative clause which we can’t leave out; without this information we do not know which soldier the speaker is referring to.
The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton, who played in the World Cup team, withdrew yesterday because of a back injury, which kept him out of the Five Nations Championship.	Non-defining relative clauses which we can leave out: The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton withdrew yesterday because of a back injury.

Warning:

We can use that instead of who, whom or which in defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses:

I think anyone who speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

I think anyone that speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

Her car, which was very old, broke down after just five miles.

Not: Her car, that was very old, broke down after just five miles.

EXERCISES:

• https://elt.oup.com/student/solutions/int/grammar/grammar_03_022e?cc=global&selLanguage=en
• https://www.test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/defining-and-non-defining-relative-clauses/
• https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/intermediate-grammar/relative-clauses-non-defining-relative-clauses
• https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/ND_relative_clauses.htm
• https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses/exercises?04

Relative clauses. defining and non defining 

Grammar: Relatives

Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.):

They’re the people who want to buy our house.

Here are some cells which have been affected.

They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.

[talking about an actress]

She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

Spoken English:

In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in informal speaking:

They’re the people that want to buy our house.

Here are some cells that have been affected.

Subject or object

The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:

They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house. The people is the subject.)

They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The peopleis the object.)

Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality. Some cells is the subject.)

Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some cells. Some cells is the object.)

No relative pronoun

We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:

They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.

Here are some cells the researcher has identified.

Punctuation

Warning:

In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:

This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:

She’s the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun she)

Not: She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.

There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun they)

Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.

When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:

We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the object of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun it)

Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.)

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.

Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the autumn.

Warning:

We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:

Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

See also:

• Relative pronouns

Punctuation

In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:

Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.

Spoken English:

In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:

Unlike American firms – which typically supply all three big American car makers – Japanese ones traditionally work exclusively with one maker.(formal)

And this woman – who I’d never met before – came up and spoke to me.(informal)

Defining or non-defining relative clauses?

Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different meanings.

Compare

non-defining	defining
His brother, who works at the supermarket, is a friend of mine. He has only one brother, and that brother works at the supermarket.	His brother who works at the supermarket is a friend of mine. He has more than one brother. The one I’m talking about works at the supermarket.
It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local charities, which help the homeless. The money is intended for local charities. All these local charities help the homeless.	It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local charities which help the homeless. The money is intended for local charities. Some of these local charities help the homeless. There are other local charities as well as these.

Warning:

The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we can’t leave out the relative clause. The information in a non-defining relative clause is extra information which isn’t essential, so we can leave out the relative clause.

Compare

The soldier who had gold stripes on his uniform seemed to be the most important one.	A defining relative clause which we can’t leave out; without this information we do not know which soldier the speaker is referring to.
The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton, who played in the World Cup team, withdrew yesterday because of a back injury, which kept him out of the Five Nations Championship.	Non-defining relative clauses which we can leave out: The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton withdrew yesterday because of a back injury.

Warning:

We can use that instead of who, whom or which in defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses:

I think anyone who speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

I think anyone that speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

Her car, which was very old, broke down after just five miles.

Not: Her car, that was very old, broke down after just five miles.

EXERCISES:

• https://elt.oup.com/student/solutions/int/grammar/grammar_03_022e?cc=global&selLanguage=en
• https://www.test-english.com/grammar-points/b1/defining-and-non-defining-relative-clauses/
• https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/intermediate-grammar/relative-clauses-non-defining-relative-clauses
• https://www.examenglish.com/grammar/ND_relative_clauses.htm
• https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses/exercises?04

Relative clauses. defining and non defining